The structure of Hegel's Logic appears to exhibit self-similarity, with sub-sections, in their treatment of more specific subject matter, resembling the treatment of the whole. The result of this argument is that finite and infinite—particular and universal, nature and freedom—do not face one another as independent realities, but instead the latter, in each case, is the self-transcending of the former. Hegel, at this time, envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph, (a "man of letters") who serves to make the abstruse ideas of philosophers accessible to a wider public; his own felt need to engage critically with the central ideas of Kantianism did not come until 1800. On the day before the battle, Napoleon entered the city of Jena. (Hegel has been seen in the twentieth century as the originator of the thesis, antithesis, synthesis triad,[34] but as an explicit phrase it originated with Johann Gottlieb Fichte. the French Revolution) would cause the creation of its "antithesis" (e.g. György Lukács' History and Class Consciousness (1923) helped to reintroduce Hegel into the Marxist canon. He is considered one of the fundamental figures of modern Western philosophy, with his influence extending to the entire range of contemporary philosophical issues, from aesthetics to ontology to politics, both in the analytic and continental tradition. Hegel was appointed University Rector of the University in October 1829, but his term ended in September 1830. With his finances drying up quickly, Hegel was under great pressure to deliver his book, the long-promised introduction to his philosophical system. Hegel asserted that, in Heraclitus, he had an antecedent for his logic: "[...] there is no proposition of Heraclitus which I have not adopted in my logic".[103]. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, of Wilhelm, zoals zijn familie hem eenvoudigweg noemde, werd geboren in Stuttgart. Hegel was putting the finishing touches to it, The Phenomenology of Spirit, as Napoleon engaged Prussian troops on 14 October 1806 in the Battle of Jena on a plateau outside the city. As is always the case, difficulties are magnified for those reading him in translation. His is the persistent Idea that is the same in all philosophers up to the present day, as it was the Idea of Plato and Aristotle". One of these problematic aspects was his conception of human nature as irreconcilably split between reason and emotion. Marx plays little-to-no role in these new readings. – Confirmes in his capacity as the director of the Nuremberg Ägidiengymnasium, which he headed since 1808, the learning success of Johann Christoph Sigmund Lechner. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel war ein deutscher Philosoph, der als wichtigster Vertreter des deutschen Idealismus gilt. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, (born August 27, 1770, Stuttgart, Württemberg [Germany]—died November 14, 1831, Berlin), German philosopher who developed a dialectical scheme that emphasized the progress of history and of ideas from thesis to antithesis and thence to a synthesis. His master–slave dialectic has been influential, especially in 20th-century France. According to Hegel, "Heraclitus is the one who first declared the nature of the infinite and first grasped nature as in itself infinite, that is, its essence as process. am 14. In his classroom Hegel was more impressive than fascinating. deutscher Philosoph, Begründer der Dialektik, bedeutendster Vertreter des deutschen Idealismus, einflussreichster Philosoph seiner Zeit; versuchte eine umfassende, begreifbare Deutung der Welt zu geben. Plato’s dialogues offer the primeexample. His relations with his employers becoming strained, Hegel accepted an offer mediated by Hölderlin to take up a similar position with a wine merchant's family in Frankfurt in 1797. Obwohl Georg Friedrich Hegel an zahlreichen Orten wirkte, wird … This view, sometimes referred to as the "non-metaphysical option", has influenced many major English-language studies of Hegel. Jahrhunderts und Denker und Philosophen wie Marx, Engels und Nietzsche. Hegel: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich H., deutscher Philosoph, geb. With papered seal. the subjective side of knowledge and will, with its life, movement, and activity" (thesis and antithesis), he did not use "synthesis", but instead spoke of the "Whole": "We then recognised the State as the moral Whole and the Reality of Freedom, and consequently as the objective unity of these two elements". He achieved wide renown in his day and, while primarily influential within the continental tradition of philosophy, has become increasingly influential in the analytic tradition as well. In accordance with his wishes, Hegel was buried in the Dorotheenstadt cemetery next to Fichte and Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand Solger. Hegel and his father also caught the disease, but they narrowly survived. According to their argument, although Hegel referred to "the two elemental considerations: first, the idea of freedom as the absolute and final aim; secondly, the means for realising it, i.e. When he entered the Latin School two years later, he already knew the first declension, having been taught it by his mother. As a graduate of a Protestant seminary, Hegel's theological concerns were reflected in many of his writings and lectures. Hegel sees relational and metaphysical unities between Jesus and God the Father. In other words, although the thing-in-itself is at any given moment thoroughly unknown, it nevertheless remains that part of the thing about which it is possible to learn more.[90]:101–102. [44][45][46][47][48][49] Derrida wrote of Hegel in his work Of Grammatology that "he undoubtedly summed up the entire philosophy of the logos. [130], The Left Hegelians also influenced Marxism, which has in turn inspired global movements, from the Russian Revolution, the Chinese Revolution and myriad of practices up until the present moment.[130]. Hegel wrote that, ...profounder insight into the antinomial, or more truly into the dialectical nature of reason demonstrates any Concept [Begriff] whatsoever to be a unity of opposed elements [Momente] to which, therefore, the form of antinomial assertions could be given.[82]. (ed. Whatever the nous thinks at any time is actual substance and is identical to limited being, but more remains in the substrate of non-being, which is identical to pure or unlimited thought. [110], Hegel identified as an orthodox Lutheran and believed his philosophy was consistent with Christianity. [102] For Hegel, Heraclitus's great achievements were to have understood the nature of the infinite, which for Hegel includes understanding the inherent contradictoriness and negativity of reality; and to have grasped that reality is becoming or process and that "being" and "nothingness" are empty abstractions. This means that Jesus, as the Son of God, is posited by God over and against himself as other. His philosophy of spirit conceptually integrates psychology, the state, history, art, religion and philosophy. Among the first to take a critical view of Hegel's system was the 19th-century German group known as the Young Hegelians, which included Feuerbach, Marx, Engels and their followers. [59]:337, In 1811, Hegel married Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher (1791–1855), the eldest daughter of a Senator. Teilen. Two prominent American philosophers, John McDowell and Robert Brandom (sometimes referred to as the "Pittsburgh Hegelians"), have produced philosophical works with a marked Hegelian influence. Scholars such as Clark Butler hold that a good portion of the Logic is formalizable, proceeding deductively via indirect proof. In this way, Hegel defended the truth in Kantian dualism against reductive or eliminative programs like materialism and empiricism. [111] This led Hegelian philosopher, jurist and politician Carl Friedrich Göschel (1784–1861) to write a treatise demonstrating the consistency of Hegel's philosophy with Christian doctrine on the soul's immortality (Von den Beweisen für die Unsterblichkeit der menschlichen Seele im Lichte der spekulativen Philosophie: eine Ostergabe – From the evidence of the immortality of the human soul in the light of speculative philosophy: an Easter gift) (Berlin: Verlag von Duncker und Humblot, 1835). Schopenhauer, Arthur. Spirit, as possessed of freedom, does not belong to the sphere of things limited; it, as being what thinks and knows in an absolute way, has the universal for its object; this is eternity, which is not simply duration, as duration can be predicated of mountains, but knowledge. His fame spread and his lectures attracted students from all over Germany and beyond. This notion of identity in difference, which is bound up with his conception of contradiction and negativity, is a principal feature differentiating Hegel's thought from other philosophers. ; 1984; 'The Significance of Hegel's separation of the state and civil society' pp1-13 in Pelczynski, A.Z. "On Hegel—A Study in Sorcery", in J. T. Fraser, F. Haber & G. Muller (eds. the constitutional state of free citizens). While Aristotle criticized Plato's "Forms", he preserved Plato's ontological implications for self-determination: ethical reasoning, the soul's pinnacle in the hierarchy of nature, the order of the cosmos and reasoned arguments for a prime mover. Er hat Theologie studiert. It was spread by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus in accounts of Hegelian philosophy and, since then, the terms have been used for this type of framework. It was written in Hegel's hand, but may have been authored by Hegel, Schelling, Hölderlin, or an unknown fourth person.[67]. [94] In his Phenomenology of Spirit and his Science of Logic, Hegel's concern with Kantian topics such as freedom and morality and with their ontological implications is pervasive. Hegel’s thought eludes easy summation, and its premises are not intuitively obvious. For these scholars, fairly well represented by the Hegel Society of America and in cooperation with German scholars such as Otto Pöggeler and Walter Jaeschke, Hegel's works should be read without preconceptions. Danach war er bis zum Abschluss im Jahr 1788 Schüler des dortigen "Gymnasiums illustre". On the left, it became the foundation for Karl Marx's civil society as an economic base;[101] to the right, it became a description for all non-state (and the state is the peak of the objective spirit) aspects of society, including culture, society and politics. Although Kant’s philosophy was profoundly influential, there were several aspects of it that troubled later thinkers. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel war ein deutscher Philosoph, der als wichtigster Vertreter des deutschen Idealismus gilt. A. Pelczynski and Shlomo Avineri. Herbert L. and Patricia Allen Dreyfus). the Reign of Terror that followed) and would result in a "synthesis" (e.g. [119] However, Hegel's manuscript "The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism" suggests that Hegel was concerned about the perceived decline in myth and enchantment in his age, and he therefore called for a "new myth" to fill the cultural vacuum. Hijo de un funcionario de la hacienda pública, Hegel creció en un ambiente de pietismo protestante y estudió a los clásicos griegos y latinos mientras estuvo en el gymnasium de su ciudad natal. The reason why this subsumption takes place in a series of concepts is that Hegel's method in his Science of Logic and his Encyclopedia is to begin with basic concepts like "Being" and "Nothing" and to develop these through a long sequence of elaborations, including those already mentioned. After the period of Bruno Bauer, Hegel's influence waned until the philosophy of British Idealism and the 20th-century Hegelian Western Marxism that began with György Lukács. In his later works, produced as textbooks for his lectures, the Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences and the Philosophy of Right, he compresses his material into relatively short, numbered paragraphs. Since human thought is the image and fulfillment of God's thought, God can be understood by an analysis of thought and reality. Every member loves the State with genuine patriotism, but has transcended simple "team spirit" by reflectively endorsing their citizenship. Unable to find more suitable employment, Hegel reluctantly accepted. All greatly admired Hellenic civilization and Hegel additionally steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Lessing during this time. [96] Böhme had written that the Fall of Man was a necessary stage in the evolution of the universe. Finite things do not determine themselves because, as "finite" things, their essential character is determined by their boundaries over against other finite things, so in order to become "real" they must go beyond their finitude ("finitude is only as a transcending of itself").[95]:145. Hegel’s system is avowedly an attempt to unify opposites—spirit and nature, universal and particular, ideal and real—and to be a synthesis in which all the partial and contradictory philosophies of his predecessors are alike contained and transcended. In fact, Hegel himself argued, in his Science of Logic, that German was particularly conducive to philosophical thought. Hegel's categories are, in part, carried over from his Lectures on the History of Philosophy. Rather, it comes to completion in the philosophical comprehension of individual existing human minds who through their own understanding bring this developmental process to an understanding of itself. The State involves three "moments". And debates about the nature of logic were intertwined with competition to inherit the mantle of Kant and with it the future direction of German philosophy. Indeed, "logic" in the field of nineteenth-century continental philosophy takes on a range of meanings from "metaphysics" to "theory of science," from "critical epistemology" to "first philosophy." In a separate Canadian context, James Doull's philosophy is deeply Hegelian. Popper further proposed that Hegel's philosophy served not only as an inspiration for communist and fascist totalitarian governments of the 20th century, whose dialectics allow for any belief to be construed as rational simply if it could be said to exist. Hegel's illegitimate son, Ludwig Fischer, had died shortly before while serving with the Dutch army in Batavia and the news of his death never reached his father. Criticism of Hegel has been widespread in the 19th and the 20th centuries. ), all the pure concepts of the understanding are immanently contained within the most abstract concept; the entire tree of the concepts of the pure understanding unfolds from a single concept the way a tree grows from a seed. The limitations represent fetters, which it must constantly cast off as it becomes freer and more self-determining.[106]. During this period, he composed the text which has become known as the Life of Jesus and a book-length manuscript titled "The Positivity of the Christian Religion". Doctrines of judgment investigate relations of subject and predicate; and doctrines of inference lay out the forms of syllogisms originally found in Aristotelian term logic. [76] In August 1831, a cholera epidemic reached Berlin and Hegel left the city, taking up lodgings in Kreuzberg. Every outlook in other words, is to be studied not merely as an academic possibility but as an existential reality". For Hegel, analysis or comprehension of a thing or idea reveals that underneath its apparently simple identity or unity is an underlying inner contradiction. Jahrhunderts war. The mystical writings of Jakob Böhme had a strong effect on Hegel. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. [93]:127–128 All three find common ground on the unique position of humans in the universe, relative to animals and inanimate objects. His students saw a plain, old-fashioned face, without life or lustre—a figure that had never looked young and was now prematurely aged. "[40], Hegel's work has been considered the "completion of philosophy"[41][42][43] by multiple of the most influential thinkers in existentialism, post-structuralism, and twentieth-century theology. — Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The eternity of spirit is here brought into consciousness, and is found in this reasoned knowledge, in this very separation, which has reached the infinitude of being-for-self, and which is no longer entangled in what is natural, contingent, and external. Hegel's contemporary Schopenhauer was particularly critical and wrote of Hegel's philosophy as "a pseudo-philosophy paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking". Martin Heidegger (trans. Those without this background would be advised to begin with one of the many general introductions to his thought. Critiques of Hegel offered by the Left Hegelians radically diverted Hegel's thinking into new directions and eventually came to form a large part of the literature on and about Hegel. In his posthumously published Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, Part 3, Hegel is particularly interested in demonstrations of God's existence and the ontological proof. [citation needed]. [148], Voegelin argued that Hegel should be understood not as a philosopher, but as a "sorcerer", i.e. [139] Hegel was described by Schopenhauer as a "clumsy charlatan". There are views of Hegel's thought as the summit of early 19th-century German philosophical idealism. And although the Logic's table of contents minimally resembles Kant's table of categories, the four headings of Kant's table (quantity, quality, relation, and modality) do not play, in Hegel's dialectic, the organizational role that Kant had in mind for them, and Hegel ultimately faulted Kant for copying the table of judgments from the "modern compendiums of logic" whose subject matter is, Hegel said, in need of "total reconstruction. So he, too, sometimes spoke of God and, more often, of the divine; and because he occasionally took pleasure in insisting that he was really closer to this or that Christian tradition than some of the theologians of his time, he has sometimes been understood to have been a Christian. Certificate with autograph signature. [126], According to Walter Kaufmann, the basic idea of Hegel's works, especially the Phenomenology of Spirit, is that a philosopher should not "confine him or herself to views that have been held but penetrate these to the human reality they reflect". Hegel's thought is revolutionary in that it is a philosophy of absolute negation—as long as absolute negation is at the center, systematization remains open, making it possible for human beings to become subjects. In Hegel's draft manuscripts written during his time at the University of Jena, his notion of "Geist" was tightly bound to the notion of "Aether", from which he also derived the concepts of space and time, but in his later works (after Jena) he did not explicitly use his old notion of "Aether". The Right Hegelians, the allegedly direct disciples of Hegel at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, advocated a Protestant orthodoxy and the political conservatism of the post-Napoleon Restoration period. Author: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel; Philipp Marheineke: Publisher: Berlin : Duncker und Humblot, 1832-Edition/Format: Print book: GermanView all editions and formats: Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. The rational, self-conscious whole is not a thing or being that lies outside of other existing things or minds. Karen Ng writes that "there is a central, recurring rhetorical device that Hegel returns to again and again throughout his philosophical system: that of describing the activity of reason and thought in terms of the dynamic activity and development of organic life. [135] American neoconservative political theorist Francis Fukuyama's controversial book The End of History and the Last Man (1992) was heavily influenced by Kojève. A diverse range of individuals including Arthur Schopenhauer, Karl Marx, Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore, Franz Rosenzweig, Eric Voegelin and A. J. Ayer have challenged Hegelian philosophy from a variety of perspectives. The physicians pronounced the cause of death as cholera, but it is likely he died from another gastrointestinal disease. In 1818, Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at the University of Berlin, which had remained vacant since Johann Gottlieb Fichte's death in 1814. The particular is never complete in itself, but in its quest to find completion continually transforms into more comprehensive, complex, self-relating particulars. This was due to (a) the rediscovery and re-evaluation of Hegel as a possible philosophical progenitor of Marxism by philosophically oriented Marxists; (b) a resurgence of Hegel's historical perspective; and (c) an increasing recognition of the importance of his dialectical method. It is now widely agreed that explaining Hegel's philosophy in terms of thesis–antithesis–synthesis is inaccurate. To his chagrin, Fries was, in the same year, made Ordinary Professor (salaried).[59]:224–25. [141] The physicist and philosopher Ludwig Boltzmann also criticized the obscure complexity of Hegel's works, referring to Hegel's writing as an "unclear thoughtless flow of words". Han fick sin utbildning 1788–1793 vid Tübinger Stift, som var ett seminarium vid den protestantiska kyrkan i Württemberg. [citation needed]. ), The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism, The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of Philosophy, Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography, Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften, Vorlesungen über de Geschichte der Philosophie, "Adam Smith's Influence on Hegel's Philosophical Writings", Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, "Duden | He-gel | Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition", "Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Philosophie", "MDZ-Reader – Band – Von den Beweisen für die Unsterblichkeit der menschlichen Seele im Lichte der spekulativen Philosophie / Göschel, Carl Friedrich", "Hegel and Clausewitz: Convergence on Method, Divergence on Ethics", On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, « Der Instinkt der Vernünftigkeit » and other texts, Hegel, as the National Philosopher of Germany (1874), "The Life of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel", Scans of all (original, German) books from Hegel (all editions) between 1807 and 1850 as PDFs at hegel.net, Works by or about Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Relationship between religion and science, Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&oldid=995579405, People educated at Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium, Articles with Latin-language sources (la), Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016, Articles needing additional references from August 2017, All articles needing additional references, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2017, Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers, Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers, Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Francke, Kuno, Howard, William Guild, Schiller, Friedrich, 1913–1914, This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 20:41. Joan Staumbaugh). August 1770 in Stuttgart geboren. Selv om Hegel er en meget omstridt tenker, har virkningen på ettertiden vært enorm. Rather than simply rejecting Kant's dualism of freedom versus nature, Hegel aims to subsume it within "true infinity", the "Concept" (or "Notion": Begriff), "Spirit" and "ethical life" in such a way that the Kantian duality is rendered intelligible, rather than remaining a brute "given". For other uses, see, Articles related to Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Bern (1793–1796) and Frankfurt (1797–1801). [65] In 1799, he wrote another essay entitled "The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate",[66] unpublished during his lifetime. Kaufmann and Shlomo Avineri have criticized Popper's theories about Hegel. With the possible exception of the study of inference, what was called "logic" in nineteenth-century Europe (and so Hegel's Logic) bears little resemblance to what logicians study today. — Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, buch Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts. p. 1. 1895 Ebenezer Brown Speirs 1854-1900, and J Burdon Sanderson P. 297 Lectures on Philosophy of Religion, Volume 1 (1827) Vol 1 Translated from the 2d German ed. [74]:773, Having received offers of a post from the Universities of Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Hegel chose Heidelberg, where he moved in 1816. Eines unterscheidet Hegels Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts von anderen Werken der politischen Philosophie: Das Buch beschreibt den Staat nicht, wie er sein sollte, sondern wie er, zumindest in Hegels Augen, zu Beginn des 19. For this reason, Hegel's Logic begins with the summum genus, "Being, pure Being," ("and God has the absolutely undisputed right that the beginning be made with him"[83]) from which are derived more concrete concepts such as becoming, determinate being, something, and infinity. [37] Paul Tillich wrote that the historical dialectical thought of Hegel "has influenced world history more profoundly than any other structural analysis. At the same time, political thinkers turned to the study of Hegel, particularly his political works but also his Logic, because of their influence on Marx. [95]:146 Rather than stress the singularity of each factor that complements and conflicts with the others, the relationship between finite and infinite (and particular and universal, and nature and freedom) becomes intelligible as a progressively developing and self-perfecting whole. Sitting with his snuffbox before him and his head bent down, he looked ill at ease and kept turning the folios of his notes. Logic, particularly the doctrine of the concept, was metaphysics; it was the search for a fundamental ontological structure within the relations of the most basic predicates (quantity, time, place etc. [105] Pure being and pure non-being or nothingness are, for Hegel, abstractions from the reality of becoming and this is also how he interprets Heraclitus. To this list, one could add Proclus, Meister Eckhart, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Plotinus, Jakob Böhme, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In Reason and Revolution (1941), Herbert Marcuse made the case for Hegel as a revolutionary and criticized Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse's thesis that Hegel was a totalitarian. [137] Regarding Hegel's interpretation of history, Russell commented: "Like other historical theories, it required, if it was to be made plausible, some distortion of facts and considerable ignorance". By 14 November, Hegel was dead. Kant spoke of Entstehen (coming-to-be) and Vergehen (ceasing-to-be), the same two terms that Hegel used to refer to the two compositional elements of Werden (becoming). As the logical Idea is seen to unfold itself in a process from the abstract to the concrete, so in the history of philosophy the earliest systems are the most abstract, and thus at the same time the poorest...[86]. Nürnberg, September 2, 1814. Hegels Philosophie erhebt den Anspruch, die gesamte Wirklichkeit in der Vielfalt ihrer Erscheinungsformen einschließlich ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung zusammenhängend, systematisch und definitiv zu deuten.
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